Accountability Illusions, Simpson’s Paradox and the Bottom Line

In the latest IPEDS graduation rate data (2021 graduates), Pennsylvania’s two-year (primarily associate degree) public institutions ranked 14th among the 50 states, and its four-year (primarily bachelor’s) institutions ranked 37th in the percent of students completing within 150% of the normal time. (I know and agree with many of the arguments about IPEDS grad rates, …

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